The Berlin Wall & the Cuban Missile Crisis
The Berlin Refugee Problem
By the late 1950s, Berlin had become a flashpoint of Cold War tension. West Berlin was a thriving capitalist outpost deep inside communist East Germany, and it was a constant embarrassment to the Soviet Union. Between 1949 and 1961, around 3 million East Germans fled to the West through Berlin — many of them skilled workers, doctors and engineers whose departure weakened the East German economy. This refugee crisis was humiliating for Khrushchev because it showed that people preferred capitalism to communism.
Khrushchev’s Berlin Ultimatum (1958)
In November 1958, Khrushchev issued an ultimatum to the Western powers: they must leave West Berlin within six months, or he would hand control of all access routes to East Germany. The West refused. A series of summit meetings followed, but none resolved the crisis.
Camp David (1959): Khrushchev and Eisenhower met in a relatively friendly atmosphere. Khrushchev withdrew his ultimatum, but no agreement was reached on Berlin. Paris (1960): The summit collapsed when the USSR shot down an American U-2 spy plane over Soviet territory. Eisenhower refused to apologise, and Khrushchev walked out. Vienna (1961): The new US President Kennedy met Khrushchev. Kennedy was inexperienced and Khrushchev bullied him, reissuing his Berlin ultimatum. Kennedy left shaken, saying it was the “worst thing in my life.”
The Construction of the Berlin Wall (1961)
On 13 August 1961, East German soldiers began sealing the border between East and West Berlin with barbed wire, which was quickly replaced by a concrete wall. The Berlin Wall was heavily guarded with watchtowers, searchlights, minefields and a “death strip” where guards had orders to shoot anyone trying to cross.
The Berlin Wall stopped the flow of refugees almost overnight. It solved the USSR’s refugee problem, but it became the most powerful symbol of the Cold War division of Europe. At least 140 people were killed trying to cross the Wall between 1961 and 1989.
Kennedy protested but did not try to tear the Wall down. He recognised that a wall was preferable to a war. In June 1963, Kennedy visited West Berlin and delivered his famous “Ich bin ein Berliner” speech, declaring American solidarity with the people of West Berlin. The Wall remained in place for 28 years.
The Cuban Revolution & the Bay of Pigs
In 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew the US-backed dictator Batista and took power in Cuba. He nationalised American-owned businesses, which angered the USA. Washington had recognised the new government in January 1959, but as the nationalisations bit the USA refused to accept Castro’s government as legitimate, imposed a trade embargo and broke off diplomatic relations in January 1961 — the ‘refusal to recognise Castro’s government’ named in the specification. Castro turned to the Soviet Union for economic and military support, bringing communism to America’s doorstep — just 90 miles from Florida.
In April 1961, President Kennedy authorised a CIA-backed invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. Around 1,400 Cuban exiles landed but were quickly defeated by Castro’s forces. The invasion was a humiliating failure that strengthened Castro’s position, pushed Cuba closer to the USSR, and made Kennedy look weak.
The Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962)
In October 1962, American U-2 spy planes photographed Soviet nuclear missile sites being built on Cuba. These missiles could reach most major American cities within minutes. Kennedy faced the most dangerous moment of the entire Cold War.
Discovery
Kennedy was shown the U-2 photographs. He formed a group of advisers called ExComm to consider the options: a naval blockade, an air strike, an invasion of Cuba, or diplomacy.
Naval Blockade
Kennedy announced a naval quarantine of Cuba on live television, demanding the removal of Soviet missiles. Soviet ships carrying more missiles were sailing towards Cuba.
Brinkmanship
Soviet ships turned back before reaching the blockade line. Khrushchev sent two letters: the first offered to remove missiles if the USA promised not to invade Cuba; the second demanded the USA also remove its missiles from Turkey. On 27 October, a U-2 spy plane was shot down over Cuba, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war.
Resolution
Kennedy agreed to Khrushchev’s first letter (no invasion of Cuba) and secretly agreed to remove US missiles from Turkey. Khrushchev agreed to remove Soviet missiles from Cuba. Nuclear war was averted.
The Cuban Missile Crisis lasted 13 days (16–28 October 1962) and was the closest the world came to nuclear war. Kennedy chose the naval blockade as a middle course — strong enough to pressure the USSR but avoiding a direct military attack that could escalate to nuclear conflict.
Kennedy appeared to win: the Soviet missiles were removed from Cuba, and the USA looked strong. However, Kennedy also secretly agreed to remove US missiles from Turkey and promised never to invade Cuba — concessions that were not made public. Khrushchev could claim he had secured Cuba’s safety and forced the removal of US missiles from Turkey, but he was humiliated domestically and was removed from power in 1964 (partly due to this crisis). Castro was furious at being excluded from the negotiations between Kennedy and Khrushchev.