Political change, 1960-2000: from Kennedy to Clinton
Kennedy and the New Frontier, 1961–1963
John F. Kennedy was inaugurated as the 35th President of the United States on 20 January 1961, the youngest man ever elected to the office. His domestic programme — the New Frontier — was ambitious: expanding federal aid to education, introducing Medicare to provide healthcare for the elderly, protecting civil rights and tackling poverty. However, Kennedy faced a conservative Congress that blocked much of his domestic agenda. He had more success in foreign policy, particularly in managing the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) and launching the Space Race with the Apollo programme.
Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on 22 November 1963. His vice president, Lyndon B. Johnson, used Kennedy’s memory and his own political skill to pass landmark legislation that Kennedy had been unable to get through Congress, including the Civil Rights Act (1964) and his “Great Society” programme of welfare expansion.
Kennedy’s New Frontier aimed to tackle poverty, extend civil rights, expand education and create Medicare. Much was blocked by Congress during his lifetime. After his assassination (22 November 1963), Johnson’s Great Society actually delivered many of these goals, including Medicare (1965) and the Civil Rights Act (1964).
Nixon and Watergate, 1972–1974
Richard Nixon won the 1968 and 1972 presidential elections by large margins. He achieved significant foreign policy successes — opening diplomatic relations with China in 1972 and negotiating the SALT I arms limitation treaty with the USSR. However, his presidency was destroyed by the Watergate scandal. On 17 June 1972, operatives working for Nixon’s re-election campaign broke into the Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington D.C. to plant listening devices. Nixon was not directly involved in ordering the break-in, but he participated in covering up the White House connection.
Investigative journalists from the Washington Post and Congressional investigations gradually exposed the cover-up. White House tape recordings proved Nixon’s involvement. When the Supreme Court unanimously ruled in United States v Nixon (1974) that he must hand over the tapes, impeachment became inevitable. Nixon resigned on 9 August 1974 — the only US president to have resigned from office. Vice President Gerald Ford assumed the presidency and controversially pardoned Nixon.
Watergate had profound effects on American political life. Public trust in government collapsed: opinion polls from the late 1970s showed record levels of cynicism about political institutions. Congress passed the War Powers Act (1973) and campaign finance reform legislation to limit executive power. The suffix “-gate” entered the language to describe political scandals.
The Reagan Years, 1981–1989
Ronald Reagan won the 1980 election in a landslide, capitalising on economic stagflation and the Iran hostage crisis under President Carter. Reagan’s domestic economic programme — nicknamed Reaganomics — combined large tax cuts (particularly for high earners), deregulation of industries, reduced federal spending on social programmes and tight monetary policy. Supporters argued this “trickle-down” approach unleashed economic growth; critics argued it increased inequality and cut services for the poor.
Reaganomics combined tax cuts, deregulation, reduced social spending and tight monetary control. By the mid-1980s inflation had fallen sharply and economic growth resumed. However, income inequality grew and the federal deficit increased substantially as tax cuts outpaced spending reductions. Reagan also tripled the national debt during his presidency.
George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton
Reagan’s vice president, George H. W. Bush, won the 1988 election but lost to Bill Clinton in 1992 largely because of a recession. Clinton’s campaign emphasised economic issues with the phrase “It’s the economy, stupid.” Clinton presided over a prolonged economic expansion in the 1990s, aided by the technology boom. He pursued centrist “Third Way” politics — accepting elements of both liberal and conservative approaches — and oversaw welfare reform (1996) that reduced the federal welfare rolls.
Despite his economic record, Clinton’s second term was dominated by scandal. He was impeached by the House of Representatives in December 1998 on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice related to his relationship with a White House intern. The Senate acquitted him in February 1999, and he remained in office. The episode was seen by many as a politically motivated attack by Republican opponents; others saw it as a serious matter of presidential integrity. Clinton left office in January 2001 with high approval ratings.