Eschatology and the Problem of Evil
What Is Eschatology?
Eschatology is the study of “last things” — death, judgement, and what happens after death. For Christians, eschatology is not morbid speculation but a source of hope: the belief that death is not the end, and that God will ultimately bring justice and renewal.
Resurrection, Judgement, Heaven and Hell
Most Christian traditions teach that after death, humans face judgement, and then enter either heaven or hell. Heaven is described as eternal life in the presence of God — a state of perfect joy, peace and communion with God. Hell is described as eternal separation from God. The 39 Articles of Religion (the foundational Anglican confession of faith) affirm belief in the resurrection of the body and eternal life, but do not specify the precise nature of hell. Some Christians interpret hell as eternal conscious punishment; others see it as the final annihilation of the unrepentant; still others (universalists) believe God will ultimately save all people.
2 Corinthians 5:1–10 is a key passage: Paul writes that believers groan in their earthly “tent” (the body), longing for a “heavenly dwelling” made by God. He says “we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, so that each of us may receive what is due to us for the things done while in the body.” This passage affirms both resurrection (a new, permanent body from God) and judgement (accountability for earthly life).
Purgatory is the Catholic and some Orthodox teaching that souls who die in a state of imperfect holiness undergo purification before entering heaven. It is not a second chance for the unrepentant but a process of preparation for those who die in God’s grace. Most Protestant traditions (as reflected in the 39 Articles, Article XXII) reject purgatory as “a fond thing vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture.” This denominational divergence is an important point of comparison between Christian traditions.
Students are expected to compare Christian eschatology with one other religion practised in Great Britain: Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism or Sikhism. Islam is the most common choice. Key comparisons: Both Christianity and Islam teach bodily resurrection, final judgement, heaven (Paradise/Jannah in Islam) and hell (Jahannam). Both affirm that what happens after death is determined by one’s response to God during earthly life. Divergence 1 — Purgatory: Catholic Christianity has a doctrine of purgatory; Islam has no direct equivalent, though some scholars discuss the barzakh (an intermediate state between death and resurrection) as a period of waiting rather than purification. Divergence 2 — Nature of salvation: Christianity teaches salvation through faith in Jesus Christ (Acts 4:8–12). Islam teaches submission (islam) to Allah, with the balance of one’s deeds assessed on the Day of Judgement; there is no equivalent to the Christian doctrine of atonement through Christ’s death. Divergence 3 — The Trinity: Christian descriptions of heaven involve the beatific vision (seeing God as he is, including the Trinity); Islamic paradise does not involve a Trinitarian concept of God.
The Problem of Evil and Suffering
If God is omnipotent (all-powerful) and benevolent (completely good and loving), why does evil and suffering exist? This is called the problem of evil. Philosophers argue: if God were truly omnipotent, he could prevent suffering; if God were truly benevolent, he would want to prevent it; yet suffering exists. This creates a logical tension for Christian belief in God.
Christians distinguish two kinds of suffering. Moral evil (also called moral suffering) is evil caused by free human choices — war, murder, cruelty, theft. Natural evil is suffering caused by natural events — earthquakes, diseases, floods. Both challenge belief in a good God, but in different ways. Moral evil raises questions about why God gave humans free will knowing they would misuse it. Natural evil raises questions about why God designed a world that produces suffering independently of human choice.
Psalm 103 responds to the problem of evil with a declaration of God’s compassion: “The Lord is compassionate and gracious, slow to anger, abounding in love.” Christians use this Psalm to argue that God’s love and care for the suffering is itself part of the answer to the problem — God does not stand aloof but suffers with humanity (especially revealed in the incarnation and crucifixion). Psalm 119 returns repeatedly to trusting God’s word even in affliction: “It was good for me to be afflicted so that I might learn your decrees” — suggesting that suffering has a spiritual purpose for the believer. The book of Job is a sustained biblical engagement with the problem: Job suffers catastrophically without deserving it, protests to God, and ultimately receives not an explanation but an encounter with God’s greatness.
Solutions to the Problem of Evil
Christians offer several responses to the problem of evil. The free will defence argues that God gave humans genuine freedom, which makes moral evil a human responsibility rather than God’s. A world with free will is considered better than a world of moral robots, even if free will is misused. This does not fully explain natural evil, however.
COMMON EXAM ERROR: Students frequently confuse these two theodicies. They are distinct and must not be attributed to the wrong thinker. Augustine (354–430 CE): Evil is the privation (absence) of good — it has no independent existence but is what happens when goodness is removed. The cause of evil is the misuse of free will, first by Satan, then by Adam and Eve (the Fall). This is the ‘free will theodicy’ or ‘Augustinian theodicy.’ Books: City of God, Confessions. Key contrast: creation was originally ‘very good’ (Genesis 1); evil entered through human sin. Augustine does NOT use the phrase ‘soul-making.’ Irenaeus (c.130–202 CE): Humans were created immature, made in the ‘image of God’ but not yet in his ‘likeness’ — they need to grow. Evil and suffering are the necessary conditions for moral and spiritual development. Modern development: John Hick (*Evil and the God of Love*, 1966) called this the ‘soul-making theodicy’ or the ‘vale of soul-making’. The world is not a paradise but a place where souls develop through facing challenges and suffering. Key contrast with Augustine: evil is not a consequence of a past Fall but a necessary feature for human growth. NEVER attribute ‘soul-making’ to Augustine.