Sources of Wisdom and Forms of Expression in Christianity
The Bible as a Source of Wisdom and Authority
The Bible is the foundational source of wisdom and authority for all Christians. The Old Testament contains law, history, the prophets and the writings (Psalms, Proverbs, etc.). The New Testament contains the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the letters (Epistles) and Revelation. Together these 66 books (Protestant canon) or 73 books (Catholic canon, including the Deuterocanonical/Apocrypha books) form Christian scripture.
Christians interpret the Bible’s authority in different ways. The literal Word of God: some Christians (particularly conservative evangelicals and fundamentalists) hold that every word of the Bible is directly and literally the Word of God, without error. This view takes Genesis 1 as a historical account and reads all biblical commands as binding today. The inspired Word of God: most mainstream Christians believe the Bible is God’s inspired Word, written by human authors under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. It is authoritative in all matters of faith and life, but must be read in its historical and literary context. Source of guidance and teaching: some Christians emphasise that the Bible’s authority lies in its spiritual wisdom and moral teaching rather than in every factual statement. 2 Timothy 3:16 is the key text: “All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness.” Dei Verbum (Vatican II, 1965) expresses the Catholic position: Scripture and Tradition together form the single sacred deposit of the Word of God.
For the 5-mark source question, 2 Timothy 3:16 (“All Scripture is God-breathed”) is a reliable and named source of authority that earns the 5th mark when used to support a point about biblical authority. Dei Verbum (Second Vatican Council, 1965) is the Catholic named source. The Book of Common Prayer (Anglican) is a named source of wisdom for how the Bible is used in formal worship. Catechism of the Catholic Church 1777 is a named source for the role of personal conscience in ethical decision-making alongside scripture.
Denominations: The Development of the Church
The Christian Church today is divided into thousands of denominations. Three major streams are most important for this course: Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant. The Great Schism of 1054 divided Western Christianity (Catholic, led by the Pope in Rome) from Eastern Christianity (Orthodox, based in Constantinople). The Reformation of the 16th century saw Martin Luther (95 Theses, 1517), John Calvin and others break from Rome over issues of biblical authority (sola scriptura), salvation (sola fide) and the sacraments. Protestant denominations that emerged include Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, Methodist, Baptist and Pentecostal/Charismatic churches.
The Filioque clause was a key theological cause of the 1054 Great Schism. The original Nicene Creed (381 AD) states that the Holy Spirit “proceeds from the Father.” Western (Latin) churches gradually added “and the Son” (filioque) without an Ecumenical Council, which the Eastern churches argued was an unauthorised alteration to a Creed binding on the whole Church. The theological dispute: Eastern theology insists that the Father alone is the source of the Trinity (monarchia of the Father); Western theology argues that the Spirit proceeds from Father and Son together as one principle. The split between Catholic and Orthodox remains formally unresolved today. Protestant churches inherited the Western (Filioque-inclusive) Nicene Creed. The Church as the Body of Christ (Romans 12:4–6; 1 Corinthians 12) is a key image that all denominations share despite their differences — one body, many members.
Leadership and the Role of Women
Christian churches have diverse leadership structures. Laity are ordinary church members (not ordained). Ministers (also called priests, vicars or pastors depending on denomination) lead congregations. Bishops oversee groups of churches (dioceses). The Pope is the leader of the Roman Catholic Church, believed by Catholics to be the successor of St Peter with universal jurisdiction. Ephesians 4:11–12 describes the purpose of church leadership: “to equip his people for works of service, so that the body of Christ may be built up.” Leaders in all denominations are expected to equip and serve their congregations, not simply to hold authority.
The role of women is a significant point of divergence. Two key passages in Paul’s letters create tension: 1 Corinthians 14:33–40 has been interpreted as restricting women from speaking in church, while Romans 16:1–16 greets Phoebe as a diakonos (deacon or minister), Priscilla as a co-worker, and Junia as “outstanding among the apostles.” These passages together show that women held significant roles in the early Church, while Paul also issued context-specific restrictions. Denominations have reached different conclusions: the Church of England ordained women as priests in 1994 and as bishops from 2015; the Methodist Church has had women ministers since 1974; the Roman Catholic Church and most Orthodox churches do not ordain women to the priesthood.
Arguments for women’s ordination: Galatians 3:28 (not named in the spec but widely cited) states “there is neither male nor female … you are all one in Christ Jesus” — suggesting the Gospel breaks down gender hierarchies. Romans 16:1–16 shows women in leadership in the early Church. The cultural context of 1 Corinthians 14 (specific problems in the Corinthian church) means the passage cannot be applied universally. The Church of England and many Protestant denominations have now ordained women at all levels. Arguments against women’s ordination: The Catholic Church teaches that Christ chose twelve male apostles and the Church has no authority to change this. 1 Corinthians 14:34 is read as a timeless principle of male headship in the Church. Some evangelical Protestants agree that gender roles in the Church are created-order structures, not cultural preferences. In a 12-mark Evaluate question, students should note that this is a live intra-Christian debate, not just a conservative/progressive binary.
Forms of Expression: Art, Drama, Literature and Music
Christians express their faith through a rich variety of art forms. Paintings and icons: famous examples include Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel ceiling (The Creation of Adam, c.1508–1512) and Rembrandt’s The Return of the Prodigal Son (c.1669). The Catechism of the Catholic Church 2502 says “sacred art is true and beautiful when its form corresponds to its particular vocation: evoking and glorifying, in faith and adoration, the transcendent mystery of God.” Icons are sacred images used especially in Orthodox Christianity as “windows into heaven” — they are not worshipped but venerated as aids to prayer. Many Protestant churches reject icons and statues as potentially idolatrous, while Catholic churches use sculpture and statues of Jesus, Mary and the saints.
Christian symbolism communicates belief without words. The Cross is the primary symbol of Christianity — Ephesians 2:10–19 speaks of Christ reconciling Jew and Gentile through the cross, “destroying the barrier, the dividing wall of hostility.” The fish (ichthus) was an early Christian secret symbol: the Greek letters of the word “fish” form the acronym “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour.” The symbols of the four evangelists (Matthew = man/angel, Mark = lion, Luke = ox, John = eagle) decorate churches and manuscripts worldwide.
Christian drama includes mystery plays (medieval performances of Bible stories) and passion plays (re-enactments of the Passion of Christ, Matthew 26–28). The Oberammergau Passion Play (Bavaria) is performed every ten years and draws pilgrims from around the world. Drama brings the Gospel to life for those who might not read the Bible.
CS Lewis (1898–1963) is the spec-named author for Christian literature. His fiction includes The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950) — an allegory in which the lion Aslan sacrifices himself and returns to life, echoing the death and resurrection of Christ. The Great Divorce (1945) is an allegorical exploration of heaven and hell, presenting heaven as the “solid” reality and earthly life as shadowy in comparison. Lewis is also known for non-fiction Christian apologetics in Mere Christianity (1952). In worship, Gregorian Chant (plainchant dating from the early medieval period) is traditional Catholic and monastic music. Contemporary worship music includes the songs of Graham Kendrick (UK songwriter, including “Shine, Jesus, Shine”) and the American worship band Casting Crowns, whose songs use accessible language to address faith, doubt and identity.