Contraception, Divorce, Gender Equality and Discrimination
Contraception and Family Planning
Christians disagree about whether using artificial contraception is acceptable within marriage. Most Protestant Churches teach that family planning, including artificial methods, is a responsible exercise of the conscience God has given to married couples. This shift is often traced to the 1930 Lambeth Conference, when the Anglican Communion first accepted that artificial contraception could be used within marriage in limited circumstances. Many other Protestant denominations, including Methodist and Baptist churches, have followed a similar path, treating responsible family planning as compatible with Christian marriage.
The Catholic Church teaches differently. In the 1968 document Humanae Vitae, Pope Paul VI restated the teaching that every act of sexual intercourse within marriage should remain open to the possibility of life. Artificial contraception is not permitted, because it deliberately separates the unitive and procreative purposes of sex. Instead, the Catholic Church permits natural family planning, which does not interfere with the body’s natural process.
Humanae Vitae (1968) restated Catholic teaching that artificial contraception is wrong because it separates the unitive and procreative purposes of sex; natural family planning is permitted instead. The 1930 Lambeth Conference marked the point where the Anglican Communion first accepted artificial contraception within marriage in limited circumstances.
Orthodox Christian teaching has traditionally been cautious about artificial contraception, but many Orthodox Churches now leave the decision to the conscience of a married couple in consultation with their priest, provided the couple remains open to children within the marriage as a whole.
Non-religious people, including atheists and Humanists, generally see family planning as a private and practical decision for a couple, based on responsible reasoning rather than a religious ruling. Many Christians apply situation ethics to family planning, arguing that the most loving outcome for a couple and their existing children should guide the decision, rather than one rule applied in every case.
Christians respond to this divergence in different ways. Some Catholics accept the Church’s teaching in full and use only natural family planning; others follow their own conscience and use artificial methods while remaining within the Church. Evangelical Protestants tend to emphasise that the Bible does not directly forbid contraception, so the decision belongs to the married couple before God. Christians who apply situation ethics across denominations argue that a rule which causes hardship for a struggling family cannot be the most loving choice, and that circumstances should shape the decision.
Divorce and Remarriage
The key biblical source on divorce is Matthew 19:1–12, where Jesus is asked whether divorce is lawful. He teaches that marriage joins two people together as God intended and that what God has joined together should not be separated by people, though the passage also includes an exception relating to sexual immorality. Christians read this exception clause differently, and this is one reason divorce is such a divisive issue between denominations.
The Catholic Church teaches that a valid, consummated sacramental marriage cannot be dissolved, so the Church does not recognise civil divorce as ending a marriage in God’s eyes. A Catholic who has divorced may apply for an annulment, which is different from a divorce: an annulment states that a valid marriage never actually existed (for example because of a lack of true consent), rather than ending one that did.
The Church of England has allowed remarriage of divorcees in church at the discretion of the local minister since 2002, recognising that some marriages do fail and that the Church should offer grace and a fresh start. Other Anglican ministers choose not to remarry divorcees in church, preferring a service of blessing after a civil ceremony instead.
Orthodox Christians take a distinctive approach: while marriage is ideally for life, the Orthodox Church, applying the principle of oikonomia (pastoral flexibility), permits a second, and in some cases a third, marriage, celebrated with a distinct penitential form of the marriage service known as oikonomia. This reflects an Orthodox belief that the Church should show pastoral compassion to those whose first marriage has broken down, while still treating remarriage as a serious step needing repentance.
Free churches and evangelical congregations vary widely: some Baptist and independent evangelical churches permit remarriage in church without restriction, believing forgiveness and a new start are central to the Christian message; others are more cautious and expect evidence of genuine repentance or counselling before agreeing to remarry a divorced person in church.
The Catholic Church does not recognise divorce as ending a valid sacramental marriage but may grant an annulment, which declares a marriage never validly existed. The Church of England has allowed remarriage of divorcees in church at a minister’s discretion since 2002. Orthodox Christians permit a penitential second or third marriage through oikonomia.
Non-religious people, including Humanists, generally believe divorce should be freely available when a relationship has broken down, since forcing two people to remain married causes more harm than good. Christians who apply situation ethics to divorce argue that remaining in a loveless or harmful marriage cannot be the most loving outcome, and that divorce can sometimes be the most caring choice for both partners and any children involved.
Equality of Men and Women in the Family
Genesis 1–3 is read in more than one way. Genesis 1 describes both man and woman as made in the image of God, which many Christians use to argue that men and women are completely equal in value and status. Genesis 2–3, which describes Eve being created from Adam and the consequences of the fall, has traditionally been read by some Christians as establishing an order of headship within marriage, with the husband holding a leading role.
Ephesians 5:21–30 is central to this debate. The passage opens by telling believers to submit to one another, but then instructs wives to submit to their husbands and husbands to love their wives as Christ loved the Church, giving himself up for it. Christians disagree about how to weigh these instructions against each other.
Christians who hold a complementarian view argue that Ephesians describes distinct, God-given roles for husbands and wives that complement one another, with headship belonging to the husband, while both partners remain equally valuable before God. Christians who hold an egalitarian view argue that the opening command to mutual submission is the key principle, and that no partner should hold authority over the other in a modern marriage.
This divergence runs across denominations rather than between them. Complementarian views are common among many evangelical and some Catholic Christians, who see distinct roles as part of God’s good design for the family. Egalitarian views are common among many Anglican, Methodist and liberal Protestant Christians, who argue that Galatians 3:23–29’s teaching of equality in Christ should apply fully within marriage and family life, not only within the Church. Both groups agree that domestic abuse or the domination of one partner over another is never justified by these teachings.
Gender Prejudice and Discrimination
Galatians 3:23–29 teaches that once a person has faith in Christ, distinctions such as those between Jew and Greek, slave and free, or male and female no longer determine a person’s worth or standing before God — all believers are one in Christ. Christians use this passage to argue that prejudice or discrimination on the basis of gender is incompatible with the Gospel, even where they disagree about the practical roles men and women should hold.
The ordination of women is a major example of this divergence in practice. The Church of England began ordaining women as priests in 1994 and consecrated its first women bishops from 2015, treating this as a step towards full equality of ministry. The Methodist Church and the United Reformed Church also ordain women as ministers. The Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church, by contrast, teach that ordination is reserved for men, arguing that this reflects the unbroken practice of the Church since the time of Christ and the apostles, rather than a judgement about women’s equal worth.
Christians have opposed gender prejudice and discrimination in practical ways: campaigning for women’s ordination within denominations that now permit it, supporting women in leadership roles in Christian charities and aid organisations, and speaking out against discriminatory treatment of women in wider society. Christians who continue to reserve ordination to men often still support women taking significant leadership roles in other areas of church life, such as teaching, pastoral care and mission.
Galatians 3:23–29 teaches that gender does not determine a person’s standing before God. The Church of England has ordained women as priests since 1994 and consecrated women bishops since 2015. The Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church reserve ordination to men.