Contraception, Divorce, Gender Equality and Discrimination
Contraception and Family Planning
Muslims hold divergent views on contraception, but the classical starting point is a set of hadith reports that companions of the Prophet practised ‘azl (withdrawal) during his lifetime and he did not forbid it. These reports, found in Sahih al-Bukhari 34:432 and 62:136, are the main evidence used to permit family planning, provided both spouses agree to it. ‘azl is not something one spouse can impose on the other — mutual consent is the key condition.
Mainstream Sunni and Shi’a scholars extend this reasoning to modern reversible methods, such as the pill or condom, since the underlying principle — spacing pregnancies for the health of the mother and the stability of the family — is the same. Permanent sterilisation and abortion are treated far more restrictively. Sterilisation is permitted by only some scholars, and usually only for clear medical necessity, because it removes the possibility of future children altogether. Abortion as a method of contraception is not accepted; most scholars apply especially strict conditions once the pregnancy has passed the point of ensoulment, allowing termination only where the mother’s life is at risk.
Sahih al-Bukhari 34:432 and 62:136 report that companions practised ‘azl (withdrawal) during the Prophet’s lifetime without him forbidding it. Mainstream Sunni and Shi’a scholars use this as the classical basis for permitting reversible contraception, on condition that both spouses agree.
Non-religious Humanists generally see family planning as a matter of personal autonomy and responsible parenthood, judging each case by its likely consequences for the family's wellbeing rather than by a fixed rule. A similar case-by-case approach is found in situation ethics — a Christian ethical theory developed by Joseph Fletcher, which judges the right action by whichever choice is the most loving in the situation. Muslim responses often agree that protecting the wellbeing of the family supports responsible family planning, but insist this remains a private decision for the couple within marriage, guided by the Qur'an and hadith rather than by a purely case-by-case ethic.
A minority of more conservative scholars argue that deliberately limiting family size can sit uneasily with tawakkul — trust that Allah will provide for the children he grants — and with the duty to grow the ummah. On this view, contraception should be occasional rather than a permanent rejection of children. Mainstream scholarship responds that trusting Allah is entirely compatible with sensible planning, in the same way that working for a living does not contradict trust in Allah’s provision.
Divorce and Remarriage
Islam permits divorce (talaq) but treats it as strongly discouraged, to be used only once a marriage genuinely cannot be saved. A husband-pronounced talaq is followed by a waiting period set out in Surah 2:226–241. During this ‘iddah, the couple typically continues living under the same roof, the husband continues to provide financial support, and reconciliation is actively encouraged. Muslims believe family arbiters from both sides should be tried before any divorce is finalised.
A wife who wishes to end her marriage may seek khul’, in which she typically returns her mahr (the gift given to her at marriage) in exchange for release. Both talaq and khul’ allow remarriage once any ‘iddah has been completed — but not during the waiting period itself.
Surah 2:226–241 sets out the ‘iddah waiting period following talaq. Reconciliation is encouraged and financial support continues throughout it; only once the wife's ‘iddah is complete is she free to remarry, and the divorce becomes final.
Sunni and Shi’a law differ on how a valid divorce is performed. Shi’a jurisprudence requires talaq to be pronounced in Arabic, before two just male witnesses, in a single sitting, and does not recognise a triple pronouncement made all at once as ending the marriage outright. Several Sunni schools of law have historically treated a triple pronouncement made in one sitting as immediately and irrevocably binding, though this remains debated, and some modern Muslim-majority states have introduced reforms restricting the practice.
Non-religious Humanists generally view divorce as a personal decision, best judged by whichever outcome causes the least harm and greatest wellbeing for those involved — an approach consistent with situation ethics. Muslim responses point out that Islam already discourages divorce and requires attempts at reconciliation and arbitration first, so the two positions often reach similar practical outcomes even though they start from different foundations.
Equality of Men and Women in the Family
Surah 4 sets out rights and responsibilities within marriage. A husband must pay his wife a mahr at the time of marriage, and it remains hers alone. A wife keeps her own name, her own earnings, and the right to own and manage property independently of her husband. Muslim teaching presents these as protections that give women financial security within marriage.
Muslims hold divergent views on how far men’s and women’s roles should differ. A complementarian reading understands qiwamah — a husband’s duty to maintain and protect his wife — as a form of headship, with distinct but equally valued roles for men and women. An egalitarian, more reformist reading understands qiwamah as a financial responsibility only, arguing that spouses should reach decisions together through mutual consultation as equal partners.
Muslims point to the time of Muhammad as evidence that Islam improved women’s position compared with earlier custom. Khadijah, the Prophet’s first wife, was an independent and successful merchant who employed Muhammad before their marriage. Revelation at this time gave women the right to inherit, the right to consent to their own marriage, and the right to own property — rights that were not reliably guaranteed to women under the customs that came before.
Gender Prejudice and Discrimination
Surah 33:35 addresses believing men and believing women together, in matching terms, listing the same qualities of devotion, honesty, patience and charity in men and women alike, and promising both the same reward from Allah. Muslims regard this as clear evidence that men and women are of equal worth and standing before Allah, even where their social roles may differ.
Surah 33:35 lists identical qualities of faith for believing men and believing women and promises them the same reward from Allah — a foundation text for Muslim teaching that gender prejudice and discrimination are wrong.
Muslims point to examples of gender equality in action: women have historically served as respected scholars and narrators of hadith, and today many Muslim women lead charities, teach in mosques and Islamic schools, and hold professional and academic positions. Practice still varies between communities — mosques differ in how they arrange space for men and women, and Muslims hold divergent views on whether women should lead mixed congregational prayer or serve as imams, with reformist voices arguing for greater inclusion and traditionalist scholars maintaining established separate roles.