Sexual Ethics and Contraception

Sexual Ethics Across Traditions

Sexual ethics is one of the areas where religious traditions show the greatest internal diversity — from strong absolute positions rooted in natural law or scripture, to more flexible approaches that weigh pastoral context and the well-being of individuals. This lesson examines what each tradition teaches about the purposes of sex, the use of contraception, and attitudes towards divorce, presenting these as legitimate disagreements between and within traditions rather than matters with a single correct answer.

Christianity — Natural Law and the Purpose of Sex

Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) developed the theory of Natural Law, arguing that God has built purposes into human nature that can be discerned by reason. Aquinas identified five primary precepts — fundamental human goods — the second of which is reproduction. From this, Aquinas argued that sexual acts must be open to the possibility of new life in order to be morally permissible. Any sexual act that by its nature cannot result in procreation (for example, contraceptive sex) violates natural law in this approach. This absolutist position has been enormously influential in Catholic moral theology.

The Catholic Church’s position on contraception is set out in the encyclical Humanae Vitae (1968), issued by Pope Paul VI. The encyclical taught that each act of sexual intercourse must remain open to the transmission of life, and that artificial contraception breaks the God-given link between the unitive and procreative dimensions of sex. The Catechism of the Catholic Church (2362–2363) affirms that sexual love within marriage is good and holy, united with fruitfulness. Natural family planning (tracking fertility cycles) is permitted as it works with rather than against the body’s natural processes.

The Church of England and most Protestant traditions take a different position. The Lambeth Conference 1930 was a turning point: for the first time, Anglican bishops accepted that contraception could be morally acceptable within a faithful marriage if used responsibly. Most Anglican, Methodist and other Protestant churches today leave the decision about contraception to couples, trusting their moral discernment.

Judaism

Jewish teaching on sex and contraception varies significantly between Orthodox and Reform (Progressive) communities. In Orthodox Judaism, the first commandment in the Torah is to “be fruitful and multiply” (Genesis 1:28), meaning that openness to children is a high religious duty. However, the Talmud and rabbinic authorities have historically permitted contraception for women in certain circumstances — for example, where pregnancy would pose a health risk. The form of contraception matters: methods that do not destroy male seed are generally more acceptable than those that do in traditional halachic reasoning. Reform and Progressive Judaism generally leaves contraceptive decisions to individuals, supporting modern medical practice and reproductive autonomy.

On divorce, the Torah (Deuteronomy 24:1–4) makes provision for a man to give his wife a bill of divorce (get). In Orthodox Judaism, a religious divorce requires the husband to issue the get; a woman cannot unilaterally obtain one. This has created a significant social problem where some husbands refuse to issue the get, leaving women as agunot (chained women) — unable to remarry in the eyes of Orthodox law. Reform Judaism has addressed this by granting courts the power to dissolve marriages on behalf of either party.

Islam

Islam teaches that sexual relations outside marriage are forbidden. The Qur’an (17:32) states that one should not go near unlawful sexual relations, as it is an indecent act and a wrong way. Within marriage, sexuality is regarded as a gift from God and a source of spiritual closeness as well as procreation. On contraception, many Muslim scholars permit it where there is a valid reason (spacing of children, health concerns) using the principle that temporary prevention of birth is acceptable, though permanent sterilisation is generally opposed. Majority opinion holds that abortion as contraception is not permitted.

Divorce is permitted in Islam but strongly discouraged. The Qur’an (2:229) sets out a structured process for talaq (divorce) with a waiting period (iddah) to allow for reconciliation. The Qur’an (4:35) encourages arbitration by family members before divorce is finalised. Women can seek divorce through a legal process (khul’). Remarriage after divorce is permitted.

Sikhism

The Guru Granth Sahib (335) contains teachings about the spiritual dimension of human relationships, emphasising that the body is sacred and that life should be lived in accordance with God’s will (hukam). Sikhism does not have a formal prohibition on contraception and generally leaves such decisions to couples. Sex within marriage is regarded as a positive part of human life; sex outside marriage is discouraged as it can lead to attachment and suffering. On divorce, the Rehat Maryada (Sikh code of conduct, Chapter 11, Article 18) does not explicitly prohibit it but emphasises that marriage is a lifelong commitment. Guru Granth Sahib 274 stresses the importance of faithfulness in marriage.

Buddhism

The Third Precept in Buddhism is to refrain from sexual misconduct. In traditional Theravada interpretation, this means avoiding adultery, sex with those who are “already taken,” and relationships based on exploitation or harm. It does not necessarily mean sex outside marriage is always wrong, since Buddhism does not require a formal marriage ceremony — what matters is whether the relationship causes harm. Monks and nuns in the Theravada tradition are celibate; in the Zen tradition, monks may marry. The Triratna Buddhist Community (formerly the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order) takes an inclusive approach, focusing on whether a relationship is ethical and free from exploitation rather than on its formal structure. On contraception, there is no Buddhist prohibition — responsible family planning is generally accepted.

Non-Religious Perspectives

Humanists support individual autonomy in sexual ethics, arguing that consenting adults have the right to make their own decisions about relationships and contraception. They strongly support access to contraception as a matter of reproductive health and human rights. On divorce, Humanists argue that unhappy or harmful marriages should be dissoluble, and that the quality of a relationship matters more than its legal status. They typically oppose religious restrictions on contraception or divorce that they consider harmful to individuals, particularly women.